Soil salinization is a pressing environmental issue in Turkmenistan. Estimates on its extent vary with the World Bank reporting that more than 60% of the agricultural land in the country is salinized, while some scientific literature reports the number could be as high as 98.9% of the irrigated land. It is likely to worsen with the rising temperatures due to climate change.
Across Central Asia, about 47.5% of irrigated land face salinization, with Turkmenistan experiencing the highest rates (Hamidov, 2016). The impacts of soil salinization are devastating for the country’s agricultural sector which contributes around 11% to the national GDP (World Bank, 2024).
Soil salinization is a process of excessive accumulation of soluble salts in soil. It can occur naturally due to high salt content in soil or groundwater (primary salinization), or as a result of human activities (secondary salinization), especially due to unsustainable irrigation processes that introduce excess salts into the soil (JRC EU, n.d.). Soil salinization can often happen along with waterlogging, i.e. saturation of soil with water. Waterlogging restricts the airflow and prevents excess salts from being removed.
Salinization has a major impact on agriculture as it decreases soil fertility and reduces crop yields. In Turkmenistan, soil salinity and waterlogging were estimated to reduce crop yields by 20-30% in recent years.
Soil conditions in Turkmenistan
Despite the significant impact of soil salinization, it has received limited attention in Turkmenistan. The topic was partially covered in the Environmental Performance Review for Turkmenistan by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The reviews are conducted by experts from the UNECE region at the request of the respective governments. To date, around 30 countries have undergone at least one review cycle, with some, such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Azerbaijan, completing three cycles. Turkmenistan had the first and last review in 2012 and it covered a wide range of environmental issues, including air and water pollution, land management, biodiversity, and others. No further reviews have been done in Turkmenistan since then.
The Environmental Performance Review for Turkmenistan categorizes the country’s soil types, Figure 1. Some of these lands are naturally saline, such as solonchak, and others are also more prone to salt accumulation, for example clay and takyr soil. Grey desert soil (sierozem) represents more fertile and productive soil suitable for agriculture.
Figure 1: The Environmental Performance Review, types of soil in Turkmenistan.
However, according to the report, data on soil health is sparse and no soil analyses have been performed since 1991. As a result, addressing issues like rangeland deterioration, salinization of irrigated lands, and waterlogging has been challenging.
Estimates on the scale of salinization in the country vary. UNECE reports that the share of irrigated land that is affected by soil salinity and waterlogging has doubled from around 25% to 50% in a decade preceding the report. In some regions like Dashoguz almost 90% of the irrigated lands suffer from medium to heavy salinity levels. Other sources estimate that 60% (World Bank) to 98.9% (Hamidov et al., 2016) of agricultural land is affected by salinization. Çakir (2020) found that 13% of the agricultural land has high salinity, 59% has average salinity level.
Salinization in Turkmenistan: causes and effects
The salinization problem in Turkmenistan has been caused by poor and insufficient drainage systems and untreated discharged water which worsen waterlogging and allow salts to accumulate. Unrestricted water usage for agriculture discourages water conservation and efficiency, while surface irrigation methods commonly used in Turkmenistan result in very high water losses and leads to further waterlogging, which prevents removal of salts (Çakir, 2020). Almost 90% of the total irrigated agricultural area needs functional drainage systems.
Water table levels are another issue contributing to soil salinization. Water table levels refer to the level at which soil is saturated with water. In about 36% of the irrigated land affected by salinization in Turkmenistan, this level is less than 2 meters from the surface (UNECE). When water evaporates or transpires, salts accumulate close to the surface, causing secondary salinization. These salts cannot be completely removed by washing so they accumulate on the surface even further.
Furthermore, the problem is exacerbated by irrigation water that does not always meet governmental standards and has too high concentrations of chlorides and sulfates. According to the WorldBank (2024), water salinity in the Amu Darya river reaches 1.44 g/liter and further downstream it can be as high as 2.2 g/liter. However, in some areas, water salinity reaches 27-30 g/liter during periods of low water. The FAO recommends irrigation water can be safely used without the risk of soil salinization if the salt concentration is less than 0.5 g/liter. Salt content of more than 2 g/liter is not advised and is said to have high risks of soil salinization.
Finally, dust emissions with salt particles from the Aral Sea are carried with winds over vast distances. The estimates show that about 430,000 tonnes of aerosols accumulate on agricultural crops every year. Dashoguz is one of the regions in Turkmenistan that is especially vulnerable to increasingly frequent salt dust storms.
Existing laws on land and soil conservation
The Land Code of Turkmenistan includes certain provisions for surveying and monitoring land, and soil conservation. However, it lacks specific regulations for implementing these provisions and there are no penalties for harming soil health. The Land Code also mandates that land users and owners must manage land in a rational and responsible way and must take measures to prevent land degradation and maintain soil fertility (UNECE, 2012).
Limited soil quality surveying is conducted by the Research and Production Centre on Environmental Monitoring (RPCEM) of the National Institute of Deserts, Flora and Fauna, that monitors pesticide pollution in soil on agricultural lands. All provinces (with an exception of Balkan prvince due to its mostly oil and gas activities) send samples from 15 observation points in spring and autumn. However, the analysis is limited to pesticides, but other parameters such as acidity, humus (fine organic matter), or pollutant emissions are not tracked, even though the report claims that PRCEM has soil monitoring capabilities. Physiological characteristics of soil were previously monitored by Hydromet, but the monitoring stopped in 2005.
Soil salinization poses a critical environmental threat with increasingly severe impacts on agriculture and crop yields. Despite its significance, the available data is inconsistent and outdated making it difficult to understand and address the evolving situation. To mitigate further degradation, the Environmental Performance Review from 2012 has a list of recommendations to the government of Turkmenistan, targeting specific government agencies:
- The Ministry of Nature Protection: to ensure information availability to the general public, including data on environmental regulation, inspections, and enforcement.
- A recommendation to the Cabinet of Ministers to ensure that the land assessment in the country is carried out and the land cadastre is updated.
- The Ministry of Water economy: to ensure water savings and promote sustainable water use via the introduction of incentives and other measures.
- The Cabinet of Ministers: to strengthen cooperation between governmental authorities to combat soil deflation and salinization and develop a sustainable land management strategy. Additionally, it is recommended to establish a system of regular soil monitoring and assessments by the Ministry of Agriculture. Soil analysis must be performed regularly and agrochemical laboratories must be established for these purposes.
- The Ministry of Agriculture: to develop mechanisms that can help to improve land management and soil quality conditions, and provide new guidelines for agriculture that would promote prevention of soil degradation and soil fertility losses.
- The Ministry of Nature Protection, together with other institutions, should develop legislation on soil protection from industrial activities.
